Summary [ ] Duhring plot for boiling point of sodium chloride solutions Earle, Richard L.; Earle, M. Unit Operations in Food Processing. The New Zealand Institute of Food Science & Technology (Inc.). Retrieved March 15, 2009.

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See also:,,,,,,,,,,,, and France conquered Indochina and made it into the colony of during the 19th century. Sparked by the hardships suffered by the Vietnamese during World War II, the, a Communist-led common front under the leadership of, initiated an insurgency against French rule. Hostilities escalated into the (beginning in December 1946). By the 1950s, the conflict had become entwined with the Cold War, with the Viet Minh being backed by the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China and the French being backed by the United States. After the French defeat at the in 1954, peace negotiations were initiated. At the, the French negotiated a ceasefire agreement with the Viet Minh, and independence was granted to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam (the insurgency had spread to Cambodia and Laos, part of French Indochina, as well).

Exit of the French, 1950–54. French soldiers fight off a Viet Minh ambush in 1952. Military advisors from the People's Republic of China (PRC) began assisting the Viet Minh in July 1950. PRC weapons, expertise, and laborers transformed the Viet Minh from a guerrilla force into a regular army. In September 1950, the United States created a (MAAG) to screen French requests for aid, advise on strategy, and train Vietnamese soldiers. By 1954, the United States had supplied 300,000 small arms and spent US$1 billion in support of the French military effort, shouldering 80 percent of the cost of the war. There were also talks between the French and Americans in which the possible use of three was considered, though reports of how seriously this was considered and by whom are even now vague and contradictory.

Carriers sailed to the, and reconnaissance flights over were conducted during the negotiations. According to U.S. Vice-President, the plan involved the Joint Chiefs of Staff drawing up plans to use three small tactical nuclear weapons in support of the French. Nixon, a so-called ' on Vietnam, suggested that the United States might have to 'put American boys in'.

President made American participation contingent on British support, but they were opposed to such a venture. In the end, convinced that the political risks outweighed the possible benefits, Eisenhower decided against the intervention. Eisenhower was a. He was wary of getting the United States involved in a land war in Asia. The Viet Minh received crucial support from the Soviet Union and PRC. PRC support in the allowed supplies to come from the PRC into Vietnam.

Throughout the conflict, U.S. Intelligence estimates remained skeptical of French chances of success. The marked the end of French involvement in Indochina. Giap's Viet Minh forces handed the French a stunning military defeat, and on 7 May 1954, the garrison surrendered. At the, the French negotiated a ceasefire agreement with the Viet Minh, and independence was granted to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Transition period.

Main articles: and In the, Senator defeated incumbent Vice President. Although Eisenhower warned Kennedy about Laos and Vietnam, Europe and Latin America 'loomed larger than Asia on his sights.' In his inaugural address, Kennedy made the ambitious pledge to 'pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty.' In June 1961, he bitterly disagreed with Soviet premier when they to discuss key U.S.–Soviet issues. Only 16 months later, the (16–28 October 1962) played out on television worldwide. It was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full-scale, and the U.S.

Raised the readiness level of (SAC) forces to 2. An alleged Viet Cong activist, captured during an attack on an American outpost near the Cambodian border, is interrogated. On 2 August 1964, the, on an intelligence mission along North Vietnam's coast, allegedly fired upon and damaged several torpedo boats that had been stalking it in the. A second attack was reported two days later on the and Maddox in the same area. The circumstances of the attack were murky. Lyndon Johnson commented to Undersecretary of State George Ball that 'those sailors out there may have been shooting at flying fish.' The second attack led to, prompted Congress to approve the on 7 August 1964, signed by Johnson, and gave the president power to conduct military operations in Southeast Asia without declaring war.

Although Congressmen at the time denied that this was a full-scale war declaration, the Tonkin Resolution allowed the president unilateral power to launch a full-scale war if the president deemed it necessary. In the same month, Johnson pledged that he was not 'committing American boys to fighting a war that I think ought to be fought by the boys of Asia to help protect their own land'. An undated publication declassified in 2005, however, revealed that there was no attack on 4 August. It had already been called into question long before this. 'The ', wrote Louise Gerdes, 'is an oft-cited example of the way in which Johnson misled the American people to gain support for his foreign policy in Vietnam.' Herring argues, however, that McNamara and the Pentagon 'did not knowingly lie about the alleged attacks, but they were obviously in a mood to retaliate and they seem to have selected from the evidence available to them those parts that confirmed what they wanted to believe.'

'From a strength of approximately 5,000 at the start of 1959 the Viet Cong's ranks grew to about 100,000 at the end of 1964. Between 1961 and 1964 the Army's strength rose from about 850,000 to nearly a million men.' The numbers for U.S.

Troops deployed to Vietnam during the same period were quite different; 2,000 in 1961, rising rapidly to 16,500 in 1964. By early 1965, 7,559 South Vietnamese hamlets had been destroyed by the Viet Cong. A Marine from 1st Battalion, 3rd Marines, moves an alleged Viet Cong activist to the rear during a search and clear operation held by the battalion 15 miles (24 km) west of. The recommended a three-stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam. On 7 February 1965 following an, (initiated when Soviet Premier was on a to ), and commenced. The bombing campaign, which ultimately lasted three years, was intended to force North Vietnam to cease its support for the Viet Cong by threatening to destroy North Vietnam's air defenses and industrial infrastructure.

As well, it was aimed at bolstering the morale of the South Vietnamese. Between March 1965 and November 1968, 'Rolling Thunder' deluged the north with a million tons of missiles, rockets and bombs. Bombing was not restricted to North Vietnam. Other aerial campaigns, such as, targeted different parts of the Viet Cong and NVA infrastructure.

These included the supply route, which ran through Laos and Cambodia. The objective of stopping North Vietnam and the Viet Cong was never reached. As noted, 'This is a political war and it calls for discriminate killing.

The best weapon. Would be a knife.

The worst is an airplane.' The, however, had long advocated saturation bombing in Vietnam and wrote of the communists that 'we're going to bomb them back into the Stone Age'. Escalation and ground war. Heavily bandaged woman with a tag attached to her arm which reads 'VNC Female' meaning Vietnamese civilian After several attacks upon them, it was decided that bases needed more protection as the South Vietnamese military seemed incapable of providing security. On 8 March 1965, 3,500 were dispatched to South Vietnam. This marked the beginning of the American ground war. Public opinion overwhelmingly supported the deployment.

In a statement similar to that made to the French almost two decades earlier, Ho Chi Minh warned that if the Americans 'want to make war for twenty years then we shall make war for twenty years. If they want to make peace, we shall make peace and invite them to afternoon tea.' Some have argued that the policy of North Vietnam was not to topple other non-communist governments in South East Asia. The Marines' initial assignment was defensive. The first deployment of 3,500 in March 1965 was increased to nearly 200,000 by December. Military had long been schooled in offensive warfare.

Regardless of political policies, U.S. Commanders were institutionally and psychologically unsuited to a defensive mission. In December 1964, ARVN forces had suffered heavy losses at the, in a battle that both sides viewed as a watershed. Previously, communist forces had utilized hit-and-run guerrilla tactics. However, at Binh Gia, they had defeated a strong ARVN force in a conventional battle. Tellingly, South Vietnamese forces were again defeated in June 1965 at the.

Soldiers searching a village for Viet Cong Desertion rates were increasing, and plummeted. General informed Admiral, commander of U.S. Pacific forces, that the situation was critical. He said, 'I am convinced that U.S. Troops with their energy, mobility, and firepower can successfully take the fight to the NLF [National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam a.k.a. The Viet Cong]'.

With this recommendation, Westmoreland was advocating an aggressive departure from America's defensive posture and the sidelining of the South Vietnamese. By ignoring ARVN units, the U.S. Commitment became open-ended. Westmoreland outlined a three-point plan to win the war: • Phase 1. Commitment of U.S. (and other free world) forces necessary to halt the losing trend by the end of 1965. And allied forces mount major offensive actions to seize the initiative to destroy guerrilla and organized enemy forces.

This phase would end when the enemy had been worn down, thrown on the defensive, and driven back from major populated areas. If the enemy persisted, a period of twelve to eighteen months following Phase 2 would be required for the final destruction of enemy forces remaining in remote base areas. The plan was approved by Johnson and marked a profound departure from the previous administration's insistence that the government of South Vietnam was responsible for defeating the guerrillas. Westmoreland predicted victory by the end of 1967. Johnson did not, however, communicate this change in strategy to the media. Instead he emphasized continuity.

The change in U.S. Policy depended on matching the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong in a contest of and.

The opponents were locked in a cycle of. The idea that the government of South Vietnam could manage its own affairs was shelved.

Soviet Premier with U.S. President at the where the two representatives discussed the possibilities of a peace settlement The one-year of American soldiers deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer noted 'we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times.' As a result, training programs were shortened. South Vietnam was inundated with manufactured goods. As Stanley Karnow writes, 'the main PX [Post Exchange], located in the Saigon suburb of, was only slightly smaller than the New York.'

The American buildup transformed the economy and had a profound effect on South Vietnamese society. A huge surge in corruption was witnessed.

Washington encouraged its allies to contribute troops. Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Thailand, and the Philippines all agreed to send troops. Major allies, however, notably nations Canada and the United Kingdom, declined Washington's troop requests. And its allies mounted complex operations, such as operations,,, and. However, the communist insurgents remained elusive and demonstrated great flexibility. Meanwhile, the political situation in South Vietnam began to stabilize with the coming to power of prime minister Air Marshal and figurehead Chief of State, General, in mid-1965 at the head of a military junta.

This ended a series of coups that had happened more than once a year. In 1967, Thieu became president with Ky as his deputy, after rigged elections. Although they were nominally a civilian government, Ky was supposed to maintain real power through a behind-the-scenes military body. However, Thieu outmaneuvered and sidelined Ky by filling the ranks with generals from his faction. Thieu was also accused of murdering Ky loyalists through contrived military accidents. Thieu, mistrustful and indecisive, remained president until 1975, having won a one-candidate election in 1971.

The Johnson administration employed a 'policy of minimum candor' in its dealings with the media. Military information officers sought to manage media coverage by emphasizing stories that portrayed progress in the war. Over time, this policy damaged the public trust in official pronouncements. As the media's coverage of the war and that of the Pentagon diverged, a so-called developed. Tet Offensive. Marines in Operation Allen Brook in 1968 Across South Vietnam, 1,100 Americans and other allied troops, 2,100 ARVN, 14,000 civilians, and 32,000 NVA and Viet Cong lay dead. But the Tet Offensive had another, unintended consequence.

General Westmoreland had become the public face of the war. 7 Days To Die Steam Key Generator on this page. He had been named Time magazine's 1965's Man of the Year and eventually was featured on the magazine's cover three times. Time described him as 'the sinewy personification of the American fighting man. [who] directed the historic buildup, drew up the battle plans, and infused the men under him with his own idealistic view of U.S. Aims and responsibilities.' Six weeks after the Tet Offensive began, 'public approval of his overall performance dropped from 48 percent to 36 percent–and, more dramatically, endorsement for his handling of the war fell from 40 percent to 26 percent.' Viet Cong/NVA killed by U.S.

Air Force personnel during a perimeter attack of Tan Son Nhut Air Base during the Tet Offensive said in an editorial, 'To say that we are closer to victory today is to believe, in the face of the evidence, the optimists who have been wrong in the past. To suggest we are on the edge of defeat is to yield to unreasonable pessimism. To say that we are mired in stalemate seems the only realistic, yet unsatisfactory, conclusion.' Following Cronkite's editorial report, President is reported to have said, 'If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost.' Whether this statement was actually made by Johnson has been called into doubt. Westmoreland became Chief of Staff of the Army in March 1968, just as all resistance was finally subdued.

The move was technically a promotion. However, his position had become untenable because of the offensive and because his request for 200,000 additional troops had been leaked to the media. Westmoreland was succeeded by his deputy, a commander less inclined to public media pronouncements. On 10 May 1968, despite low expectations, began between the United States and North Vietnam in Paris. Negotiations stagnated for five months, until Johnson gave orders to halt the bombing of North Vietnam.

As historian writes, 'Lyndon Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam divided Americans into warring camps. Cost 30,000 American lives by the time he left office, [and] destroyed Johnson's presidency.' His refusal to send more U.S. Troops to Vietnam was seen as Johnson's admission that the war was lost. In effect, Johnson found that the Vietnam War was no easier to prosecute than the Korean War, learning from experience that China was likely to intervene directly if Hanoi's survival was threatened. Likewise, the Soviet Union would respond by providing more supplies and equipment to raise the cost for U.S.

Involvement, weakening their defenses in Europe and in the worse case trigger a nuclear confrontation. It can be seen that the refusal was a tacit admission that the war could not be won by escalation, at least not at a cost acceptable to the American people. As Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara noted, 'the dangerous illusion of victory by the United States was therefore dead.' Vietnam was a major political issue during the. The election was won by Republican party candidate. Vietnamization, 1969–72 Nixon Doctrine / Vietnamization. Main articles:,,,,, and Prince had proclaimed Cambodia neutral since 1955, but the communists used Cambodian soil as a base and Sihanouk tolerated their presence, because he wished to avoid being drawn into a wider regional conflict.

Under pressure from Washington, however, he changed this policy in 1969. The Vietnamese communists were no longer welcome. President Nixon took the opportunity to launch a massive bombing campaign, called Operation Menu, against communist sanctuaries along the Cambodia/Vietnam border.

Only five high-ranking Congressional officials were informed of Operation Menu. In 1970, Prince by his pro-American prime minister. North Vietnam invaded Cambodia in 1970 at the request of deputy leader. And ARVN forces launched to attack NVA and Viet Cong bases. This invasion sparked as Nixon had promised to deescalate the American involvement.

At during a protest in, which provoked further public outrage in the United States. The reaction to the incident by the Nixon administration was seen as callous and indifferent, providing additional impetus for the anti-war movement. Air Force continued to heavily bomb Cambodia in support of the Cambodian government as part of.

In 1971 the were leaked to. The top-secret history of U.S. Involvement in Vietnam, commissioned by the Department of Defense, detailed a long series of public deceptions on the part of the U.S. The ruled that its publication was legal. The main battle tank of the ARVN The ARVN launched in February 1971, aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos.

The ostensibly neutral Laos had long been the scene of a civil war, pitting the backed by the US against the and its North Vietnamese allies. After meeting resistance, ARVN forces retreated in a confused rout.

They fled along roads littered with their own dead. When they exhausted fuel supplies, soldiers abandoned their vehicles and attempted to barge their way on to American helicopters sent to evacuate the wounded. Many ARVN soldiers clung to helicopter skids in a desperate attempt to save themselves. Aircraft had to destroy abandoned equipment, including tanks, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Half of the ARVN troops involved in the operation were either captured or killed.

The operation was a fiasco and represented a clear failure of Vietnamization. As Karnow noted 'the blunders were monumental The (South Vietnamese) government's top officers had been tutored by the Americans for ten or fifteen years, many at training schools in the United States, yet they had learned little.' In 1971 Australia and New Zealand withdrew their soldiers. Troop count was further reduced to 196,700, with a deadline to remove another 45,000 troops by February 1972. As spread across the United States, disillusionment and ill-discipline grew in the ranks including increased drug use, ' (the act of murdering the commander of a fighting unit) and desertions. Vietnamization was again tested by the of 1972, a massive conventional NVA invasion of South Vietnam.

The NVA and Viet Cong quickly overran the northern provinces and in coordination with other forces attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. Troop withdrawals continued. American airpower responded, beginning, and the offensive was halted. However, it became clear that without American airpower South Vietnam could not survive. The last remaining American ground troops were withdrawn by the end of March 1973; U.S.

Naval and air forces remained in the Gulf of Tonkin, as well as Thailand and Guam. 1972 election and Paris Peace Accords The war was the central issue of the. Nixon's opponent,, campaigned on a platform of withdrawal from Vietnam. Nixon's National Security Advisor,, continued secret negotiations with North Vietnam's.

In October 1972, they reached an agreement. December 1972 However, South Vietnamese president Thieu demanded massive changes to the peace accord. When North Vietnam went public with the agreement's details, the Nixon administration claimed that the North was attempting to embarrass the president.

The negotiations became deadlocked. Hanoi demanded new changes. To show his support for South Vietnam and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered, a massive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong 18–29 December 1972. The offensive destroyed much of the remaining economic and industrial capacity of North Vietnam. Simultaneously Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement, threatening to conclude a bilateral peace deal and cut off American aid.

On 15 January 1973, Nixon announced the suspension of offensive action against North Vietnam. The on 'Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam' were signed on 27 January 1973, officially ending direct U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War. A cease-fire was declared across North and South Vietnam.

Prisoners of war were released. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South.

The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. 'This article', noted Peter Church, 'proved to be the only one of the Paris Agreements which was fully carried out.'

Opposition to U.S. Involvement in the Vietnam War: 1962–1973. Victorious NVA troops at the Presidential Palace, Saigon Chaos, unrest, and panic broke out as hysterical South Vietnamese officials and civilians scrambled to leave Saigon. Was declared. American helicopters began evacuating South Vietnamese, U.S., and foreign nationals from various parts of the city and from the U.S. Embassy compound.

Had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of U.S. Ambassador 's belief that Saigon could be held and that a political settlement could be reached. Schlesinger announced early in the morning of 29 April 1975 the evacuation from by helicopter of the last U.S. Diplomatic, military, and civilian personnel. Frequent Wind was arguably the largest helicopter evacuation in history. It began on 29 April, in an atmosphere of desperation, as hysterical crowds of Vietnamese vied for limited space.

Martin pleaded with Washington to dispatch $700 million in emergency aid to bolster the regime and help it mobilize fresh military reserves. But American public opinion had soured on this conflict. In the United States, South Vietnam was perceived as doomed.

President had given a televised speech on 23 April, declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. Frequent Wind continued around the clock, as North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon.

In the early morning hours of 30 April, the last U.S. Marines evacuated the embassy by helicopter, as civilians swamped the perimeter and poured into the grounds. Many of them had been employed by the Americans and were left to their fate. Alinco Edx 2 Tuner Manual Woodworkers. On 30 April 1975, NVA troops entered the city of Saigon and quickly overcame all resistance, capturing key buildings and installations. A tank from the 324th Division crashed through the gates of the at 11:30 am local time and the Viet Cong flag was raised above it. President, who had succeeded Huong two days earlier, surrendered. Other countries' involvement Pro-Hanoi.

—, 1985 People's Republic of China In 1950, the People's Republic of China extended to the 's and sent weapons, as well as military advisers led by to assist the Viet Minh in its. The first draft of the 1954 was negotiated by French prime minister and Chinese Premier who, fearing U.S. Intervention, urged the Viet Minh to accept a partition at the. China's support for North Vietnam included both financial aid and the deployment of hundreds of thousands of military personnel in support roles. In the summer of 1962, agreed to supply Hanoi with 90,000 rifles and guns free of charge. Starting in 1965, China sent units and engineering to North Vietnam to repair the damage caused by American bombing, man anti-aircraft batteries, rebuild roads and railroads, transport supplies, and perform other engineering works. This freed North Vietnamese army units for combat in the South.

China sent 320,000 troops and annual arms shipments worth $180 million. The Chinese military claims to have caused 38% of American air losses in the war. China claimed that its military and economic aid to North Vietnam and the Viet Cong totaled $20 billion (approx. $143 billion adjusted for inflation in 2015) during the Vietnam War.

Included in that aid were donations of 5 million tons of food to North Vietnam (equivalent to NV food production in a single year), accounting for 10-15% of the North Vietnamese food supply by the 1970s. Military aid given to North Vietnam by the People's Republic of China Year Guns Artillery pieces Bullets Artillery shells Radio trans- mitters Telephones Tanks Planes Auto- mobiles 1964 80,500 1,205 25,240,000 335,000 426 2,941 16 220,767 4,439 114,010,000 1,800,000 2,779 9,502? 2 114 1966 141,531 3,362 178,120,000 1,066,000 1,568 2,235?? 96 1967 146,600 3,984 147,000,000 1,363,000 2,464 2,289 26 70 435 1968 219,899 7,087 247,920,000 2,082,000 1,854 3,313 18?

454 1969 139,900 3,906 119,117,000 1,357,000 2,210 3,453?? 162 1970 101,800 2,212 29,010,000 397,000 950 1,600??? 1971 143,100 7,898 57,190,000 1,899,000 2,464 4,424 80 4 4,011 1972 189,000 9,238 40,000,000 2,210,000 4,370 5,905 220 14 8,758 1973 233,500 9,912 40,000,000 2,210,000 4,335 6,447 120 36 1,210 1974 164,500 6,406 30,000,000 1,390,000 5,148 4,663 80?

506 1975 141,800 4,880 20,600,000 965,000 2,240 2,150? Total 1,922,897 64,529 1,048,207,000 17,074,000 30,808 48,922 560 164 15,771 soured after the in August 1968. In October, the Chinese demanded North Vietnam cut relations with Moscow, but Hanoi refused. The Chinese began to withdraw in November 1968 in preparation for a clash with the Soviets, which occurred at in March 1969.

The Chinese also began financing the as a counterweight to the Vietnamese communists at this time. China 'armed and trained' the Khmer Rouge during the civil war and continued to aid them for years afterward.

The Khmer Rouge launched ferocious raids into Vietnam in 1975–1978. When Vietnam responded with an invasion that toppled the Khmer Rouge, China launched a brief, punitive. Soviet Union.

Vietnamese civilians of village massacred by South Korean in 1968 On the side, (a.k.a. The Republic of Korea, ROK) had the second-largest contingent of foreign troops in South Vietnam after the United States. In November 1961, proposed South Korean participation in the war to John F. Kennedy, but Kennedy disagreed.

On 1 May 1964 requested South Korean participation. The first South Korean troops began arriving in 1964 and large combat formations began arriving a year later. The dispatched their while the ROK Army sent the and later the. In August 1966 after the arrival of the 9th Division the Koreans established a corps command, the Republic of Korea Forces Vietnam Field Command, near. The South Koreans soon developed a reputation for effectiveness, reportedly conducting counterinsurgency operations so well that American commanders felt that the South Korean area of responsibility was the safest. Approximately 320,000 South Korean soldiers were sent to Vietnam, each serving a one-year tour of duty. Maximum troop levels peaked at 50,000 in 1968, however all were withdrawn by 1973.

About 5,099 South Koreans were killed and 10,962 wounded during the war. South Korea claimed to have killed 41,000 Viet Cong fighters. The United States paid South Korean soldiers 236 million dollars for their efforts in Vietnam, and South Korean increased five-fold during the war. Australia and New Zealand. An Australian soldier in Vietnam Australia and New Zealand, close allies of the United States and members of the (SEATO) and the military co-operation treaty, sent ground troops to Vietnam. Both nations had gained experience in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare during the and World War II. Their governments subscribed to the.

Australia began by sending advisors to Vietnam in 1962, and combat troops were committed in 1965. New Zealand began by sending a detachment of engineers and an artillery battery, and then started sending special forces and regular infantry which were attached to Australian formations. Australia's peak commitment was 7,672 combat troops and New Zealand's 552.

More than 60,000 Australian personnel were involved during the course of the war, of which 521 were killed and more than 3,000 wounded. Approximately 3,500 New Zealanders served in Vietnam, with 37 killed and 187 wounded.

Most Australians and New Zealanders served in the in. Philippines Some 10,450 troops were dispatched to South Vietnam. They were primarily engaged in medical and other civilian pacification projects. These forces operated under the designation PHLCAG-V or Philippine Civic Action Group-Vietnam. More noteworthy was the fact that the naval base in was used for the from 1964 till the end of the war in 1975. The Navy base in and the Air force base at achieved maximum functionality during the war and supported an estimated 80,000 locals in allied tertiary businesses from shoe making to prostitution. The Thai Queen's Cobra battalion in Phuoc Tho Thai Army formations, including the 'Queen's Cobra' battalion, saw action in South Vietnam between 1965 and 1971.

Thai forces saw much more action in the covert war in Laos between 1964 and 1972, though Thai regular formations there were heavily outnumbered by the irregular 'volunteers' of the CIA-sponsored Police Aerial Reconnaissance Units or PARU, who carried out reconnaissance activities on the western side of the Ho Chi Minh trail. Republic of China (Taiwan).

Main article: Since November 1967, the secretly operated a cargo transport detachment to assist the United States and South Vietnam. Taiwan also provided military training units for the South Vietnamese diving units, later known as the Lien Doi Nguoi Nhai (LDMN) or 'Frogman unit' in English. In addition to the diving trainers there were several hundred military personnel.

Military commandos from Taiwan were captured by communist forces three times trying to infiltrate North Vietnam. Brazil The of officially supported the United States's position in South Vietnam and contributed a medical team and supplies to the country — the only country to do so (two other Latin American countries — and — offered to send military forces in support of the United States, but their offers were declined). Canada and the ICC.

Main article: Canada, India and Poland constituted the, which was supposed to monitor the 1954 ceasefire agreement. Officially, Canada did not have partisan involvement in the Vietnam War and diplomatically it was '. Victor Levant suggested otherwise in his book Quiet Complicity: Canadian Involvement in the Vietnam War (1986). The Vietnam War entry in asserts plainly that Canada's record on the truce commissions was a pro-Saigon partisan one. United Front for the Liberation of Oppressed Races (FULRO). Da Nang, South Vietnam, 1968 During the Vietnam War, American women served on active duty doing a variety of jobs.

Early in 1963, the (ANC) launched Operation Nightingale, an intensive effort to recruit nurses to serve in Vietnam. Most nurses who volunteered to serve in Vietnam came from predominantly working or middle-class families with histories of military service. The majority of these women were white Catholics and Protestants. Because the need for medical aid was great, many nurses underwent a concentrated four-month training program before being deployed to Vietnam in the ANC. Due to the shortage of staff, nurses usually worked twelve-hour shifts, six days per week and often suffered from exhaustion. Sharon Lane was the only female military nurse to be killed by enemy gunfire during the war, on 8 June 1969. A nurse treats a Vietnamese child, 1967 At the start of the Vietnam War, it was commonly thought that American women had no place in the military.

Their traditional place had been in the, but with the war came opportunity for the expansion of gender roles. In Vietnam, women held a variety of jobs which included operating complex data processing equipment and serving as stenographers. Although a small number of women were assigned to combat zones, they were never allowed directly in the field of battle. The women who served in the military were solely volunteers.

They faced a plethora of challenges, one of which was the relatively small number of female soldiers. Living in a male-dominated environment created tensions between the sexes.

While this high male to female ratio was often uncomfortable for women, many men reported that having women in the field with them boosted their morale. Although this was not the women's purpose, it was one positive result of their service.

By 1973, approximately 7,500 women had served in Vietnam in the Southeast Asian theater. In that same year, the military lifted the prohibition on women entering the armed forces. American women serving in Vietnam were subject to societal stereotypes. Many Americans either considered females serving in Vietnam masculine for living under the army discipline, or judged them to be women of questionable moral character who enlisted for the sole purpose of seducing men.

To address this problem, the ANC released advertisements portraying women in the ANC as 'proper, professional and well protected.' (26) This effort to highlight the positive aspects of a nursing career reflected the ideas of second-wave feminism that occurred during the 1960s–1970s in the United States. Although female military nurses lived in a heavily male environment, very few cases of sexual harassment were ever reported. Vietnamese women. Master-Sergeant and pharmacist Do Thi Trinh, part of the WAFC, supplying medication to ARVN dependents Unlike the American women who went to Vietnam, North Vietnamese women were enlisted and fought in the combat zone as well as providing manual labor to keep the open and cook for the soldiers. They also worked in the rice fields in North Vietnam and Viet Cong-held farming areas in South Vietnam's Mekong Delta region to provide food for their families and the war effort.

Women were enlisted in both the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) and the Viet Cong guerrilla insurgent force in South Vietnam. Some women also served for the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong intelligence services.

In South Vietnam, many women voluntarily served in the 's Women's Armed Force Corps (WAFC) and various other Women's corps in the military. Some, like in the WAFC, fought in combat with other soldiers. Others served as nurses and doctors in the battlefield and in military hospitals, or served in South Vietnam or America's intelligence agencies. During 's presidency, was the commander of the WAFC. The war saw more than one million rural people migrate or flee the fighting in the South Vietnamese countryside to the cities, especially Saigon. Among the internal refugees were many young women who became the ubiquitous 'bargirls' of wartime South Vietnam 'hawking her wares – be that cigarettes, liquor, or herself' to American and allied soldiers.

American bases were ringed by bars and brothels. 8,040 Vietnamese women came to the United States as war brides between 1964 and 1975. Many mixed-blood children were left behind when their American fathers returned to the United States after their tour of duty in South Vietnam. 26,000 of them were permitted to immigrate to the United States in the 1980s and 1990s. Black servicemen in Vietnam. A wounded African American soldier being carried away, 1968 The experience of American military personnel of African origin during the Vietnam War had received significant attention. For example, the website 'African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War' compiles examples of such coverage, as does the print and broadcast work of journalist.

The of Terry's book Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans (1984), includes the following quote: 'I have an intuitive feeling that the Negro serviceman have a better understanding than whites of what the war is about.' Army, Saigon, 1967. That book's introduction includes observations about the impact of the war on the black community in general and on black servicemen specifically. Marines complete construction of positions at a mountain-top, 1968 The communist forces were principally armed with Chinese and Soviet weaponry though some guerrilla units were equipped with Western infantry weapons either captured from French stocks during the First Indochina war or from ARVN units or bought on the black market. The ubiquitous Soviet was often regarded as the best rifle of the war, due to its ability to continue to function even in adverse, muddy conditions.

Other weapons used by the Viet Cong included the World War II-era submachine gun (both Soviet and Chinese versions), the carbine, the light machine gun, the heavy machine gun and the grenade launcher. While the Viet Cong had both (such as the ) and (such as the ), they also used bicycles to transport munitions. The US' heavily armored, 90 mm saw extensive action during the Vietnam War and over 600 were deployed with US Forces.

They played an important role in infantry support. The US service rifle was initially the (though some units were still using the WWII-era for a lack of M14s). Found to be unsuitable for jungle warfare, the M14 was replaced by which was more accurate and lighter than the AK-47. For a period, the gun suffered from a jamming flaw known as 'failure to extract', which means that a spent cartridge case remained lodged in the action after a round is fired. According to a congressional report, the jamming was caused primarily by a change in gunpowder which was done without adequate testing and reflected a decision for which the safety of soldiers was a secondary consideration. That issue was solved in early 1968 with the issuance of the M16A1 that featured a chrome plated chamber among several other features. End-user satisfaction with the M16 was high except during this episode, but the M16 still has a reputation as a gun that jams easily.

The GPMG (General Purpose Machine Gun) was the main machine gun of the US army at the time and many of them were put on helicopters, to provide when landing in hostile regions. The MAC-10 was supplied to many special forces troops in the midpoint of the war. It also armed many CIA agents in the field. Helicopters airlift members of a U.S.

Infantry regiment, 1966 Two aircraft which were prominent in the war were the Gunship and the 'Huey' gunship. The AC-130 was a heavily armed variant of the transport plane; it was used to provide, and. The AC-130H 'Spectre' was armed with two 20 mm cannons, one autocannon, and one 105 mm. The Huey is a powered by a single, engine, with a two-bladed main rotor and tail rotor. Approximately 7,000 UH-1 aircraft saw service in Vietnam. The, an anti-personnel mine, was widely used during the war.

Unlike a conventional land mine, the Claymore is command-detonated and directional, meaning it is fired by remote-control and shoots a pattern of 700 one-eighth-inch steel balls into the like a. The aircraft ordnance used during the war included,, and, a / agent generally mixed with petroleum or a similar fuel for use in an, initially against buildings and later primarily as an anti-personnel weapon that sticks to skin and can burn down to the bone.

Radio communications The Vietnam War was the first conflict where U.S. Forces had communication equipment available at the tactical level. The ran a crash program to provide U.S. Forces with a family of security equipment code named, fielding 17,000 units initially. Eventually 30,000 units were produced. However limitations of the units, including poor voice quality, reduced range, annoying time delays and logistical support issues led to only one unit in ten being used.: Vol II, p.43 While many in the U.S.

Military believed that the Viet Cong and NVA would not be able to exploit insecure communications, interrogation of captured communication intelligence units showed they were able to understand the jargon and codes used in realtime and were often able to warn their side of impending U.S. Actions.: Vol II, pp. 4, 10 Extent of U.S.

See also:,,, and The U.S. Dropped over 7 million tons of bombs on Indochina during the war—more than triple the 2.1 million tons of bombs the U.S. Dropped on Europe and Asia during all of, and more than ten times the amount dropped by the U.S.

500 thousand tons were dropped on Cambodia, 1 million tons were dropped on North Vietnam, and 4 million tons were dropped on South Vietnam. On a per capita basis, the 2 million tons dropped on Laos make it the most heavily bombed country in history; noted this was 'nearly a ton for every person in Laos.' In Laos alone, some 80 million bombs failed to explode and remain scattered throughout the country, rendering vast swathes of land impossible to cultivate and killing or maiming 50 Laotians every year. Air Force official Earl Tilford has recounted 'repeated bombing runs of a lake in central Cambodia. The B-52s literally dropped their payloads in the lake': The Air Force ran many missions of this kind for the purpose of securing additional funding during budget negotiations, so the amount of tonnage expended does not directly correlate with the resulting damage. Aftermath Events in Southeast Asia.

Vietnamese refugees fleeing Vietnam, 1984 On 2 July 1976, North and South Vietnam were merged to form the. Despite speculation that the victorious North Vietnamese would, in President Nixon's words, 'massacre the civilians there [South Vietnam] by the millions,' there is a widespread consensus that no mass executions in fact took place. However, in the years following the end of the war, up to 300,000 South Vietnamese were sent to (not including 'dissidents detained in the many prisons of Vietnam'), where many endured torture, starvation, and disease while being forced to perform hard labor. In addition, 200,000 to 400,000 died at sea, according to the., the capital of Cambodia, fell to the communist Khmer Rouge on 17 April 1975. Under the leadership of, the Khmer Rouge would eventually out of a population of around 8 million, in one of the. An estimated 1,386,734 victims of execution have been counted in mass graves, while demographic analysis suggests that the policies of the regime caused between 1.7 and 2.5 million excess deaths altogether (including disease and starvation). After repeated border clashes in 1978, Vietnam invaded (Cambodia) and ousted the Khmer Rouge, who were being supported by China, in the.

In response, China invaded Vietnam in 1979. The two countries fought a brief border war, known as the. From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic left Vietnam by boat as refugees or were expelled. The devastating impact of Khmer Rouge rule contributed to a 1979 famine in Cambodia, during which an additional 300,000 Cambodians perished.

The overthrew the in December 1975, establishing the under the leadership of a member of the royal family,. The change in regime was 'quite peaceful, a sort of Asiatic ''—although 30,000 former officials were sent to reeducation camps, often enduring harsh conditions for several years.

The conflict between rebels and the Pathet Lao in isolated pockets. Over 3 million people left Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia in the.

Most Asian countries were unwilling to accept these refugees, many of whom fled by boat and were known as. Between 1975 and 1998, an estimated 1.2 million from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries resettled in the United States, while Canada, Australia, and France resettled over 500,000.

China accepted 250,000 people. Of all the countries of Indochina, Laos experienced the largest refugee flight in proportional terms, as 300,000 people out of a total population of 3 million crossed the border into Thailand. Included among their ranks were 'about 90 percent' of Laos's 'intellectuals, technicians, and officials.' In 1988, Vietnam suffered a famine that afflicted millions. Vietnam retained its pro-Soviet orientation after the war and remained an important ally of the USSR in the region.

And similar chemical substances used by the U.S. Have also caused a considerable number of deaths and injuries over the years, including the US Air Force crew that handled them. On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of, marking the first time Washington has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam. Effect on the United States United States expenditures in South Vietnam (SVN) (1953–1974) Direct costs only.

Some estimates are higher. Military costs U.S. Military aid to SVN U.S. Economic aid to SVN Total Total (2015 dollars) $111 billion $16.138 billion $7.315 billion $134.53 billion $1.020 trillion.

Vietnam War protests at the Pentagon, October 1967 In the post-war era, Americans struggled to absorb the lessons of the military intervention. As General, one of the principal architects of the war, noted, 'First, we didn't know ourselves. We thought that we were going into another, but this was a different country. Secondly, we didn't know our South Vietnamese allies And we knew less about North Vietnam.

Nobody really knew. So, until we know the enemy and know our allies and know ourselves, we'd better keep out of this kind of dirty business. It's very dangerous.'

President coined the term ' to describe the reluctance of the American public and politicians to support further international interventions after Vietnam. Some have suggested that 'the responsibility for the ultimate failure of this policy [America's withdrawal from Vietnam] lies not with the men who fought, but with those in Congress' Alternatively, the official history of the noted that ' have often seemed to exist apart from larger issues, strategies, and objectives. Yet in Vietnam the Army experienced tactical success and strategic failure TheVietnam Warlegacy may be the lesson that unique historical, political, cultural, and social factors always impinge on the militarySuccess rests not only on military progress but on correctly analyzing the nature of the particular conflict, understanding the enemy's strategy, and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of allies. A new humility and a new sophistication may form the best parts of a complex heritage left to the Army by the long, bitter war in Vietnam.'

A young private waits on the beach during the Marine landing,, 3 August 1965 U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wrote in a secret memo to President Gerald Ford that 'in terms of military tactics, we cannot help draw the conclusion that our armed forces are not suited to this kind of war. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail.'

Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that 'the achievement of a military victory by U.S. Forces in Vietnam was indeed a dangerous illusion.' Doubts surfaced as to the effectiveness of large-scale, sustained bombing.

As noted, 'if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power couldn't do the job.' Even General William Westmoreland admitted that the bombing had been ineffective. As he remarked, 'I still doubt that the North Vietnamese would have relented.'

The inability to bring Hanoi to the bargaining table by bombing also illustrated another U.S. The North's leadership was composed of hardened communists who had been fighting for thirty years. They had defeated the French, and their tenacity as both nationalists and communists was formidable. Ho Chi Minh is quoted as saying, 'You can kill ten of my men for every one I kill of yoursBut even at these odds you will lose and I will win.'

Helicopter spraying chemical in the, South Vietnam, 1969 One of the most controversial aspects of the U.S. Military effort in Southeast Asia was the widespread use of chemical between 1961 and 1971. They were used to large parts of the countryside to prevent the Viet Cong from being able to hide their weapons and encampments under the foliage. These chemicals continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain. Early in the American military effort, it was decided that since the enemy were hiding their activities under triple-canopy jungle, a useful first step might be to defoliate certain areas.

This was especially true of growth surrounding bases (both large and small) in what became known as. Corporations like and were given the task of developing herbicides for this purpose.

American officials also pointed out that the British had previously used and (virtually identical to America's use in Vietnam) on a large scale throughout the in the 1950s in order to destroy bushes, crops, and trees in effort to deny communist insurgents the concealment they needed to ambush passing convoys. Indeed, Secretary of State told President on 24 November 1961, that '[t]he use of defoliant does not violate any rule of concerning the conduct of chemical warfare and is an accepted tactic of war. Precedent has been established by the British during the emergency in Malaya in their use of aircraft for destroying crops by chemical spraying.' The defoliants, which were distributed in drums marked with color-coded bands, included the '—,,,,, and, most famously,, which included as a by-product of its manufacture. About 11–12 million gallons (41.6–45.4 million L) of Agent Orange were sprayed over southern Vietnam between 1961 and 1971. A prime area of Ranch Hand operations was in the, where the U.S.

Navy patrol boats were vulnerable to attack from the undergrowth at the water's edge. In 1961 and 1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops.

Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. Gallons (75,700,000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24,000 km 2) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicide was sprayed over food crops. Another purpose of herbicide use was to drive civilian populations into RVN-controlled areas. Vietnamese victims affected by Agent Orange attempted a class action lawsuit against Dow Chemical and other US chemical manufacturers, but Judge dismissed their case. They appealed, but the dismissal was cemented in February 2008 by the.

As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimates that there are over 4,000,000 victims of poisoning in Vietnam, although the United States government denies any conclusive scientific links between Agent Orange and the Vietnamese victims of dioxin poisoning. In some areas of southern Vietnam, dioxin levels remain at over 100 times the accepted international standard. Veterans Administration has listed,,,,,,,,, and in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange. See also: Military deaths in Vietnam War (1955–1975) Year U.S. South Vietnam 1956–1959 4 n.a.

1960 5 2,223 1961 16 4,004 1962 53 4,457 1963 122 5,665 1964 216 7,457 1965 1,928 11,242 1966 6,350 11,953 1967 11,363 12,716 1968 16,899 27,915 1969 11,780 21,833 1970 6,173 23,346 1971 2,414 22,738 1972 759 39,587 1973 68 27,901 1974 1 31,219 1975 62 n.a. After 1975 7 n.a. Total 58,220 >254,256 Estimates of the number of casualties vary, with one source suggesting up to 3.8 million violent war deaths in Vietnam for the period 1955 to 2002. Between 195,000 and 430,000 South Vietnamese civilians died in the war.

Extrapolating from a 1969 US intelligence report, Guenter Lewy estimated 65,000 North Vietnamese civilians died in the war. Estimates of civilian deaths caused by American bombing of North Vietnam in range from 52,000 to 182,000. The military forces of South Vietnam suffered an estimated 254,256 killed between 1960 and 1974 and additional deaths from 1954 to 1959 and in 1975. The official US Department of Defense figure was 950,765 communist forces killed in Vietnam from 1965 to 1974. Defense Department officials believed that these body count figures need to be deflated by 30 percent.

In addition, Guenter Lewy assumes that one-third of the reported 'enemy' killed may have been civilians, concluding that the actual number of deaths of communist military forces was probably closer to 444,000. It was difficult to distinguish between civilians and military personnel on the Viet Cong side as many persons were part-time guerrillas or impressed laborers who did not wear uniforms.

A detailed demographic study calculated 791,000–1,141,000 war-related deaths for all of Vietnam. According to figures released by the Vietnamese government in 1995, there were 1,100,000 and military personnel deaths during the Vietnam War (including the missing).

The Vietnamese government released its estimate of war deaths for the more lengthy period of 1955 to 1975. According to the Vietnamese, Communist battle deaths totaled 1.1 million and civilian deaths of Vietnamese totaled 2.0 million. These estimates probably include battle deaths of Vietnamese soldiers in Laos and Cambodia, but do not include deaths of South Vietnamese and allied soldiers which would add nearly 300,000 for a grand total of 3.4 million military and civilian dead. Between 240,000 and 300,000 Cambodians died during the war. 20,000-62,000 Laotians also died, and 58,222 U.S. Military personnel were killed, of which 1,596 are still listed as missing as of 2015., mostly from U.S.

Bombing, continue to detonate and kill people today. According to the Vietnamese government, ordnance has killed some 42,000 people since the war officially ended. According to the government of Laos, unexploded ordnance has killed or injured over 20,000 Laotians since the end of the war. In popular culture. See also:,, and The Vietnam War has been featured extensively in television, film, video games, and literature in the participant countries.

In American popular culture, the 'Crazy Vietnam Veteran', who was suffering from, became a common after the war. One of the first major films based on the Vietnam War was 's pro-war film, (1968). Further cinematic representations were released during the 1970s and 1980s, including 's (1978), 's (1979), 's (1986) – based on his service in the during the Vietnam War, 's (1987), (1987), and (1989). Later films would include (2002) and (2007). The war also influenced a generation of musicians and songwriters in Vietnam and the United States, both anti-war and pro/anti-communist. The band recorded in 1965, and it became one of the most influential anti-Vietnam protest anthems. Many songwriters and musicians supported the anti-war movement, including,,,,,,,,,,, and.

Commemoration On May 25, 2012, President issued a of the. On November 10, 2017, President issued a proclamantion commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Vietnam War. • ^ Due to the early presence of American troops in Vietnam the start date of the Vietnam War is a matter of debate.

In 1998, after a high level review by the (DoD) and through the efforts of family the start date of the Vietnam War according to the US government was officially changed to 1 November 1955. Government reports currently cite 1 November 1955 as the commencement date of the 'Vietnam Conflict', because this date marked when the U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) in Indochina (deployed to Southeast Asia under President Truman) was reorganized into country-specific units and MAAG Vietnam was established. Other start dates include when Hanoi authorized Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam to begin a low-level in December 1956, whereas some view 26 September 1959 when the first battle occurred between the Viet Cong and the South Vietnamese army, as the start date. • ^ The figures of 58,220 and 303,644 for U.S. Deaths and wounded come from the Department of Defense Statistical Information Analysis Division (SIAD), Defense Manpower Data Center, as well as from a Department of Veterans fact sheet dated May 2010; the total is 153,303 WIA excluding 150,341 persons not requiring hospital care the CRS () Report for Congress, American War and Military Operations Casualties: Lists and Statistics, dated 26 February 2010, and the book Crucible Vietnam: Memoir of an Infantry Lieutenant. Some other sources give different figures (e.g.

The 2005/2006 documentary Heart of Darkness: The Vietnam War Chronicles 1945–1975 cited elsewhere in this article gives a figure of 58,159 U.S. Deaths, and the 2007 book Vietnam Sons gives a figure of 58,226) • The (with an authorized strength of 128 men) was set up in September 1950 with a mission to oversee the use and distribution of US military equipment by the French and their allies. • On 8 March 1965 the first American combat troops, the, began landing in Vietnam to protect the.